Heredity, Reproduction, Inheritance Timeline

The currently known timeline relevant to the historical development of concepts of heredity related to the Thoroughbred, setting the stage for Bruce Lowe theory and research. Other documentation will be added as it is found.

Hippocrates of Cos (460-377 BC), founder of medical science, Father of Medicine, developed his theory of pangenesis

Aristotle's (384-322 BC) conception of reproduction was first to attribute an essential role to maternal contribution.

(55 BC) Roman invasion of Britain (approximately 55 BC). Roman foot soldiers were opposed by soldiers with horses. It's true, the majority of the horses were pony size. Horse racing and chariot racing were known amusements of the Romans. English chariots required horses with some strength and stamina as battle chariots were equipped with scythes on the ends of their axles. Some historians claim this is indirect evidence of attempts at selective breeding even then. Julius Caesar made a point that if there had been more British cavalry, the cost of victory "would have been bought more dearly."

Queen Boadicea from the area around Norfolk was the first British queen to maintain a royal stud. She borrowed money for breeding from the Roman philosopher Seneca. When her husband died, Seneca called in the loan which she was unwilling or unable to pay. The Romans foreclosed on her valuable horse with the idea to export them to Rome. Cope states that even at this early date, export trade existed in Britain with other parts of the Roman empire. This started a conflict between Boadicea with her Iceni tribesmen against the Romans. Ultimately 80,000 of her supporters perished against 10,000 Roman legionnaires while the Queen poisoned herself to avoid capture.

Queen Boadicea sounds like horsemen that I have known! Sacrificing all for those damn horses, going into debt, burning all her bridges, stubborn, arrogant, and strong willed - yep, that's a description of many modern horsemen. The more things change, the more they stay the same?

Romans occupied Britain for approximately 500 years. Alfred Cope termed it the "first Age of Gold", as the authority and enforcement of Roman rule held the new British civilization safe and peaceful against barbarism. Some forms of horse sports developed. Importation of horses from other parts of the Roman empire such as Gaul, Italy, Spain, etc. laid some of the foundation for the blooded horse (as we know him) of today. The end of the Roman era became the beginnings of the British dark ages known primarily as Anglo-Saxon eras with a number of small kingdoms established.

Alfred Cope in "Cope's Royal Cavalcade of the Turf" 1953, published for David Cope, Ltd., by Cope's Publications Ltd., states:

"We have come to take the Turf of our own day so much for granted that we tend to forget that it is entirely dependent upon settled conditions within our country. The art of breeding and racing horses cannot be carried on in times of anarchy."

Claudius Galen (AD 131-201), an influential Roman physician and writer accepted the Greek view of reproduction and heredity. They pragmatically described breeds of animals and plants, applied systematic breeding practices, progeny testing for breed improvement.

In York on an ancient course on Campleshon Pasture, the Emperor watched the games and contests of the "coursers". Alfred Cope states that Arabs were trained at Netherby in A.D. 200 "in a kind of indoor racecourse" against the rough British winters. In the south, a blown glass racing trophy was found at Colchester

St. Augustine (AD 345-430) wrote about reproduction. Tried to reconcile teachings of Aristotle with Christian theology. He accepted the Old Testament cosmology but believed God had endowed matter with powers of self-development and that natural causes were involved with the production of plants and animals.

King Alfred appoints the first royal Master of Horse about A.D. 900. Alfred established a legal code from the laws of his predecessors, promoted literacy, religion, and education

His son, King Athelstan was presented by Hugh Carpet of France with first outside blood since the time of the Roman occupation when he received horses from Germany. Athelstan decreed that horses could not be exported except as royal gifts. He had strong interests in culture, religion, art.

About A.D. 1000, official value placed upon horses lost or destroyed through negligence was thirty shillings. Regulations enacted prohibiting brutality toward horses. Buying, selling, and possible misrepresentation of horses became officially regulated.

William the Conqueror (William I - Duke of Normandy 1027-1087) Battle of Hastings A.D. 1066, King from 1066 until his death in 1087. Norman conquest of Britain probably helped advance animal husbandry. Established the feudal system.

Even at this time, horses were not used to draw a plow (that happened much later). Oxen were used for plowing and other heavy farming work. - John F. Wall, "Breeding Thoroughbreds"

In the time of King Henry II, there was a street named Knightrider, the road to London's first racecourse known as "Smoothfield". The following is a proof that even at this time, "blooded" horses (or, race horses or the elites) were distinguished from ordinary horses. In the words of William FitzStephen:

"When these horses are ready to runne their race...the people give a shout and the common Hackneys are commanded to go aside. The boyes that ride make matches among themselves, two and two together, being experte in governing their horses which they rule and curbe with a sharpe bridle, labouring by all means that one get not before the other. And the very beasts after their fashion, do not cease to stryve, while their joints tremble, and impatient of delay, endyre not standing still in a place. When the token is given they stretch out their bodies and runne speedily away, the Riders spurring them on for love of praise or the hope of victory."

On the island of Cyprus, King Richard I (Lionheart), Coeur de Lion's pair of "peerless horses", Favell and Lyard galloped or raced at a tournament. "Goeth none so swyfte withoute fayle, for a thousand pownd of gold, Ne shoulde the one be solde!"

King John forced to sign Magna Carta in 1215. He imports a group of heavy horse from Flanders whose strains did influence the English draft horse and may possibly have been incorporated eventually into what became the Thoroughbred. Cope states he also imported Arab bloodstock. King John was known to "accept a good horse in payment for a fine."

Crusades undertook by Christians occurred from about the 11th Century to about the end of the 13th Century - military expeditions to recover the Holy Land from the Muslims. Unfortunately, very few specimens of Eastern horses were brought back by the Crusaders. The Crusades were next to the Roman occupation, the second most important period influencing the horse. Increasing interest in varied athletic contest involving the horse and breeding of horses became an established industry during this era.

Edward II (1284-1327), King of England from 1307 to 1327, about 1320 or so, imported horses from Lombardy.

Edward III (1312-1377), King of England from 1327-1377, imported Spanish horses to cross on the English heavy draft horses.

Horses used extensively in Hundred Years' War (a series of English-French wars 1337-1453) and their military importance firmly established. English War Horse similar to draft horses but lighter. England lost all its possessions in France.

At the end of the War of the Roses (the English civil war 1455-1485, fought between the house of York, whose symbol was a white rose, and the house of Lancaster, whose emblem was a red rose. The war ended with the establishment of the house of Tudor on the English throne) royalty and the wealthy were so broke that no important development in the horse occurred until Henry VII (1457-1509, King of England 1485-1509 first Tudor king). Henry VII enacted wise laws that encouraged the breeding of better animals. Stallions prohibited from common pastures or the promiscuous breeding that caused deterioration (mongrelization) of existing bloodlines. Public rewards to encourage intelligent selection for breeding.

Henry VIII (1491-1547, King of England 1509-1547, broke with the papacy, established Church of England) issued arbitrary rulings, that, in effect, improved the light horse. He ordered destruction of "weedy" stallions, and required certain horsemen to maintain horses according to their station. There was no organized racing at this time and no general use of the horse in agriculture While it is not known for sure whether racing was conducted on any scale, exhibition of horses regularly occurred. There is a claim that early racing occurred at Chester during the reign of Henry VIII. Henry VIII is credited with establishing the Royal Studs in England. The Spanish government presented him with Barbs by way of Italy and from North Africa by way of Italy.

In the spring of 1514, at Hampton Court, Giovanni Ratti, the envoy of the Marquis of Mantua presented to the astonished and delighted King Henry VIII, a royal gift of "four superb barbs". Two were named Altobello and Governatore. The King sought more. Two came from the King of Spain and a fine stallion from the Duke of Urbino. Ferdinand, King of Aragon sent two more reputed to be worth a hundred thousand ducats. Additional horses also arrived. By 1526, the royal stud was able to send eighteen horses to Francis I. Gentlemen raced their horses against the King and the Abbot of Glastonbury maintained a stud. Evidence shows that King Henry was a betting man and a poor loser. A number of his acquaintances suffered fatal consequences when opposing him. He once bet and lost the bells of St. Paul on a horse race to Sir Miles Partridge against a hundred pounds. The rich could bet but the poor were prohibited from doing so. As a young King, Henry VIII attempted to spend the stored-up treasure of his father in the shortest possible time. The Royal jockey, Thomas Ogle, received an annual retainer to ride for the King. The Royal trainer was named Powell or Pawle.

Racing is recorded for the first time on the Roodee at Chester, the oldest surviving course in England.

Queen Elizabeth (1533-1603, Queen of England 1558-1603), James I (1566-1625, King of England 1603-1625), and Charles I (Charles Stuart, 1600-1649, King of England, Scotland, & Ireland 1625-1649) were all quite interested in horses. The sport of racing now flourished which provided incentive for even more organized breeding. Prominent citizens were encouraged to also participate in racing horses. During Queen Elizabeth's reign, the coach horse became very popular. Races were regularly run for trophies. The Queen's stud was maintained at Greenwich. Master Oliver Cromwell (uncle of Oliver Cromwell, below) founded Huntingdon Races during the reign of Elizabeth.

William Harvey (1578-1657), the English physician, by studying the origin of bird eggs, developed the theory of epigenesis, that the embryo influenced by its internal and external environment develops progressively by stages forming structures that were not originally present in the egg.

James I (1566-1625, King of England 1603-1625, son of Mary, Queen of Scots) established rules of racing, is credited with laying out the race course at Newmarket, appointed George Villiers Master of Horse, who influenced considerable importations and stronger interest in breeding. The Markham Arabian imported about 1616 and purchased by James I for £154. He was no world-beater, losing in every race for which he ran, but was ancestor of the Byerley Turk and Darley Arabian. The first horse specifically imported to improve the horse and who had a strong influence was The Buckingham or The Helmsley Turk (about the time of Charles I). He sired Hutton's Royal Colt, who appears in Eclipse' pedigree. The King maintained royal studs at Newmarket, Tutbury, Malmesbury, and Cole Park. Coles Park even had a walled training ground.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650), the French philosopher and natural scientist combined the findings of astronomy, mathematics, and physics explained reproduction or heredity as principles of mechanics.

Leeuwenhoek (1632-1694), inventor of the microscope, speculated about the idea of pre-existence, through the examination of the sperm of animals and man thought he could see minute animals he identified as preformed embryos.

Charles I (Charles Stuart, 1600-1649, King of England, Scotland, & Ireland 1625-1649) in 1643 had at Tutbury, Staffordshire, mares and stallion of which it is recorded there were three Morocco mares, which may have been included at a later date as part of the "Royal Mares"

During the Interregnum , Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) was interested in breeding military horses, maintained a private stud headed by Place's White Turk, whose name is prominent in the pedigree of Matchem. Cromwell banned racing and dispersed the Royal Studs. During Cromwell's reign (1653-1658) Brownlow Turk, Rutland's Barb, Fairfax Morocco Barb, and Lambert Turk were at stud.

Malpighi (1628-1694) by studying avian embryos supposed he'd found a preformed embryo in the egg which began development on coming in contact with sperm. These studies gave rise to the contradictory theories of preformation known as the ovistic and the spermistic.

Charles II (1630-1685, King of England, Scotland, & Ireland 1660-1685) intensely interested in horse sports re-established horse racing, imported some of the so-called Royal Mares, and the White and Yellow Turks, etc. Racing became firmly established. Charles II direct British Ambassador at Constantinople to procure Arabians for the Royal Stud. A cry of "too much speed and no bone" had its origin just about that time. The old (heavy) English horse, however, was on the way out. Founded the Royal Society to promote scientific research. Alexander Pope satirized the monarch: "Newmarket's glory rose while England's fell." His royal example was followed by nobles and gentlemen who soon began setting up their own studs as well. Charles II firmly established the British Turf.

During the reign of James II (1633-1701, king of England 1685-88), not much advancement in breeding took place, however the Lister or Straddling Turk (probably Arabian) was taken at the Siege of Buda and brought to England. It is said that James II combined in one person all the outstanding failings of his family.

Foundation Sire: The Beyerley Turk was imported about 1689. During William III reign, after the Battle of the Boyne in 1690, Captain Byerley imported his black war horse, The Byerley Turk, whose name is important in the pedigree of Herod. Racing and the establishment of breeding farms became in great fashion in England after the wars and spread to the American colonies.

Reamur (1683-1757), French physicist and zoologist introduced a new concept of generation in which the inheritance of traits was connected with reproduction. Maupertius (1698-1759) developed these concepts even further, contradicting the idea of preformation - transmission of traits of parents to their offspring.

The Honeywood Arabian, The Curwen Bay Barb, Harpur Turk, Akaster Turk, The Marshall or Seaby Turk, Hutton's Bay Barb, Greyhound (in utero) and Chillaby were brought to England during the time of William and Mary. William III (1650-1702, king of England, Scotland, & Ireland 1689-1702) and Mary (1662-94, queen of England, Scotland, & Ireland 1689-94, ruling jointly with her husband William III).

Foundation Sire: The Darley Arabian imported in 1704 (supposedly foaled in 1702 according to Thomas Henry Taunton, paternal ancestor of Eclipse),

Foundation Sire: Importation of The Godolphin Arabian and the other horses of that period finally gave England all the essential bloodline elements for the creation of the new breed. Intelligent matings constantly improved the descendants of the original, small, native pony or horse and the Eastern horse until the Thoroughbred was created.

Racing established in New York in 1725, in South Carolina in 1734, in Virginia in 1739, and in Maryland in 1745.

Foundation Sires: The Darley Arabian, and The Leedes' Arabian, Taffolet Barb, Lord Oxford's Bloody Shouldered Arabian, Bloody Buttocks, Belgrade Turk, Oglethorpe Arabian, White Legged Lowther Barb, Lord Cullen's Arabian (died in 1761), Holderness Turk, Alcock's Arabian, Lonsdale's Bay Arabian, and The Godolphin Arabian (supposedly foaled in 1724, died in 1753, often referred to as a Barb, and whose line was carried on by Matchem), were imported into England during the reign of Queen Anne or soon afterward. Rivalry between breeders for possession of Eastern blood became intense.

Wolf (1734-1794) systematically observed the process of growth and development of plants and chicken embryos, supposed he'd discovered a "law of organic bodies" and refuted the theory of preformation. Major competing theories of heredity at this time: preformation and epigenesis

G.L.L. Buffon (1707-1788) wrote about evolution of living things, variability of traits of animals, environmental influences on heredity.

Foundation Sire: Matchem 1748, by Cade 1734 x Partner Mare 1735, by Partner 1718

Foundation Sire: King Herod (a.k.a. Herod) 1758, by Tartar 1743 x Cypron 1750, by Blaze 1740

Based on research of Patrick Cunningham, in his article, "The Genetics of Thoroughbred Horses", reported in Scientific American, May 1991, additional influences include:

"For about a century, the population remained relatively small, and Thoroughbred racing was the sport of a very limited royal coterie. The Tudor and early Stuart kings maintained studs, although these were dispersed by Oliver Cromwell in 1649. After the Stuart restoration, the patronage of King Charles II gave renewed impetus to Thoroughbred breeding and racing. The sport continued to develop strongly throughout the 18th century, and it was then that the three oldest classic races were established: the St. Leger in 1776, the Oaks in 1779, and the Derby in 1780."

"Three prominent stallions are often called "the pillars of the Stud Book because they appear in the bloodlines of an astonishing large proportion of all modern Thoroughbreds. Those horses are from left to right, the Godolphin Arabian (born about 1725), the Darley Arabian (born about 1688), and the Byerly Turk (born about 1690).

A fourth horse, the Curwen Bay Barb (not pictured), which was born about 1699, should be added to this select list of stallions because its genetic legacy to modern horses is even greater than the Byerley Turk. The significance of this horse is often overlooked, but one of its grandsons, Partner (born in 1718) was highly prolific and passed along many of its genes."

"These four stallions donated about one third of the genes in the current population, and the top 10 contributors are responsible for half of the genetic makeup. If we include all ancestors with a contribution of one percent or greater, the list includes 21 more horses (11 of them mares) and accounts for 80 percent of the makeup of the modern population. Those figures hinted that inbreeding, which seriously harms the fertility of most animal species, might be a problem for Thoroughbreds."

Ancestor	Percent of Genes in Present Population	Percent of Genes in Present Population	Percent of Genes in Present Population
Godolphin Arabian	14.6	The percent of genes in these	The percent
Darley Arabian	7.5	four ancestors	of genes
Curwen Bay Barb	5.6	contribute 32.5% of all	in these
Byerley Turk	4.8	genes	ten ancestors
Bethell's Arabian	3.3		contribute
White Darcy Turk	3.3		50.3 %
Old Bald Peg Mare	3.1		of all genes
St. Victor Barb	3.1		in the
Lister Turk	2.5		current
Leede's Arabian	2.5		population

John F. Wall places the establishment of the English Thoroughbred as a distinct breed at 1750. Wall finds that a total of 174 Eastern sires were imported: 89 Arabs, 47 Barbs, 4 Persian, 2 Foreign. Of these, approximately 50 are significant to Thoroughbred bloodlines. Popularity of Eastern sires declined in about 1750 due to lack of speed compared to their descendants.

Foundation Sire: Eclipse 1764, by Marske 1750 x Spilletta 1749, by Regulus 1739 greatest racehorse of the 18th century.

King George III had a strong interest in botany and farming, earned him the name, "Farmer George".

Foundation Sire: Highflyer 1774, by Herod 1758 x Rachel 1763, by Blank 1740, foaled, greatest sire of 18th century.

John F. Wall references on page 20-21, a book by William Youatts, and re-quotes William Percival 1834 remarks.

"William Youatt credits the Darley Arabian as the horse mainly responsible for the establishment of the Thoroughbred. Many years ago he wrote:

""The last improvement furnished all that could be desired; nor was this true only of the Thoroughbred or turf horse - it was to a very material degree the case with every description of horse. By a judicious admixture and proportion of blood, we have rendered our hunters, our hackneys, our coach - nay, even our cart-horses, stronger, more active, and more enduring than they were before the introduction of the race horse.

""The history of the horse in England is a very interesting one. The original breed - that of which mention is first made in history - seems to have been a valuable one. The Conquer carried away many specimens of it, and they were long held in repute in every country subjugated by the Romans. The insular situation of Britain, and its comparatively little need of the war-horse, led, under several monarchs to a culpable degree of negligence; and although, perhaps, on the whole, the English were not far behind their Continental neighbours, yet at no period, until within the last century and a half, has Great Britain been at all distinguished on this account; but from that time, and especially during the latter part of it, the British horse has been sought after in every part of the world. There is nothing in our climate that can account for this - nothing in our soil, or this superior excellence would have been acknowledged long ago.""

"He continued by quoting remarks by William Percival made in an introductory lecture at University College in 1834. The extract is:

""The grand first cause is that, by the steady prosecution and scientific management of which this success has been brought about, appears to me to be breeding; by which I do not only mean the procuration of original stock of good description, but the continual progressive cultivation of that stock in the progeny by the greatest care in rearing and feeding, and by the most careful selection. On these two circumstances, and particularly on the latter, a great deal more depends than on the original characters or attributes of the parents. By these means we have progressed from good to better, losing sight of no subsidiary help, until we have attained a perfection in horseflesh unknown in the whole world beside.""

From about 1750 to 1865, there was extensive experimentation and development of biological theories by many researchers: enigma of fertilization, hybridization, transmission of traits, heredity and evolution.

Lamarck's (1809) theory of transformation of organisms and evolution from lowest forms to man himself had a major impact on natural science. He developed the ideas of living matter's tendency to grow in complexity, of inheritance of traits acquired through the action of environment on organisms.

Thomas Robert Malthus' Essay on the Principle of Population influencial scientific paper.

Charles Bruce Lowe (1845-94) died prematurely at 49 years of age, having suffered progressive blindness and declining health for some years. He possibly suffered from undiagnosed and untreated diabetes. Born on January 4, 1845 at Deptford, Clarence Town, New South Wales, Australia, he received early training as a accountant. He died on October 27, 1894 in London. Some family relations were involved in the dairy industry. He was a bloodstock agent in Sidney involved with the sale of many quality Thoroughbreds. He is said to have been able to recite pedigree information at yearling sales extensively from memory. Lowe writes that he had "twenty years experience in judging livestock in the show rings of New South Wales." He traveled internationally as a bloodstock agent, buying and selling high quality stock. C. Bruce Lowe was an "evolutionary thinker", "important researcher and theorist" according to Keith Binney.

Lexington 1850, by Boston 1833 x Alice Carneal 1836, by Sarpendon 1828 is foaled.

St. Simon 1881, by Galopin 1872 x St. Angela 1865, by King Tom 1851 foaled. Greatest sire of the 19th century.

Ormonde 1883, by Bend Or 1877 x Lily Agnes 1871, by Macaroni 1860 foaled. Greatest racehorse of 19th century.

Final editing of "Breeding Race Horses by the Figure System" by William Allison, who completed research details and published Bruce Lowe's great work posthumously in 1895 in London.

The term, "metis" referred to a hybridization process in the crossing of "races" of animals prior to 1750. After 1758, hybridization of plants was included in the definition of the term.

American breeder, Joseph Cooper (1759-1840) achieved remarkable improvements in plants while a Mr. Bakewell in England with selective breeding of the meat-producing Dishley sheep, improved animals in a similar manner.

Knight's most influential paper on plant hybridization was published in 1799, was influential in England and Europe.

Thomas Andrew Knight (1759-1838) published information on the progressive cultivation of plants to obtain increased yield on the basis of his own experiments. He recommended constant selection, considered possibility of artificial pollination. He drew attention to the analogy between animal and plant breeding and emphasized the same means would produce the same consequences. (Orel - page 9)

He started from the animal breeders' idea of superfetation. (Webster: superfetation - the fertilization of an ovum during a pregnancy already in existence). In the fertilization process, the explosion of the two vesicals of farina (taken from different plants) at the same moment may afford seeds of common parentage - used in explaining the role of parents in the transmission of traits.

Page 10: "Knight's interest in breeding new plant varieties came from his previous experience with sheep and cattle breeding for meat production according to the methods of Robert Bakewell (1725-1795), whose achievements encouraged both animal and plant breeders at the end of the eighteenth century." (from Mylechreest, 1988) Apparently Bakewell and Knight may have been very influential to Bruce Lowe's ideas??

"The noted French naturalist, L.G.M. Daubenton (1716-1800), on the instigation of government authorities, began in 1767 to experiment with the crossing of sheep breeds in order to improve the quality of wool produced." Orel, page 10

In the Habsbury province of Moravia, Ferdinand Geisslern (1751-1824) came to be known as the "Moravian Bakewell" for his sophisticated breeding practices and the top quality results. Brno, capital of the province of Moravia became the center of the textile industry of the Habsburg monarchy.

Christian Carl André (1763-1831) became the foremost naturalist in 1815 developed a program of scientific development in which the basic and applied research in the natural sciences was emphasized.

Count E. Festetics (1764-1847) at the request of Christian Carl André formulated the main principles of the use of interbreeding in breeding practice. Festetics, an acknowledged expert in sheep-breeding, in 1819, published the first formulation of "genetic law".

A colleague of André, J.K. Nestler (1783-1841) published lectures under the title of "The Influence of Generation on the Characteristics of the Progeny" in 1829. He considered the influence of consanguineous crossing on hereditary diseases and points out the significance of progeny testing in animal breeding. "In describing the application of consanguineous crossing in breeding practice, Nestler defends this method against its opponents, who were still in the majority." page 14 -Orel

In 1836, Nestler, at the annual meeting of the Sheep Breeders Association, posed the question of which traits transmitted more readily, which traits transmitted with difficulty, and which traits transmitted predictably, and under what circumstances. Their project was to contribute new findings on "heredity through a posteriori analysis of pedigree and progeny testing records of animals." -Orel

Abbot Napp in 1837 stated that it was not only a question of the breeding process, but what is inherited and how? Professor Nestler in 1837 summarized in an article, "Heredity in Sheep Breeding". Their three areas of inquiry:

In the 1830s these debates concerning methods of sheep breeding were at their height in Brno. This was the source of modern rational sheep breeding. Nestler died suddenly in 1841. By 1840 cheap wool from the British colonies was having its impact and sheep breeding in Moravia was losing economic impact.

In 1853, Professor Wagner, a pure naturalist, expressed the opinion that experiments in generation and heredity could be performed on large stud- or sheep-breeding farms. Such experiments were beyond the capabilities of the laboratory. Was Bruce Lowe aware of these writings? These and other citations in Orel were known to Gregor Mendel as he started his momentous research.

Charles Robert Darwin's (1809-1882), "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection" was published in 1859. In his preoccupation with natural selection, Darwin failed to explain the basis of heredity. He stated, "the laws governing inheritance are for the most part unknown".

By the end of the 1860's heredity became a separate issue competing alongside of evolution itself. Previous speculation about hybridization of plants and crossing of animals faded into the background.

The American Civil War significantly changed the character of the Thoroughbred gene pool in the United States. Many of the most significant of the early bloodlines in the history of the breed died out at this time.

American Jockey Club bans the doping of horses as practiced by some American trainers.

Passage of the Hart-Agnew bill, New York's anti-betting laws and subsequent closure of New York racing in 1911-1912 causing large export of horses to Britain.

The English Jockey Club passes the Jersey Act to counter the large scale importation of American Thoroughbreds to Britain for sale.

Discovery and identification of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) as the fundamental chemical in which genetic information is encoded.

Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. She has been a strong supporter of the Thoroughbred, maintains a first class royal stud and is active in breeding.

Development of the "new genetics" in biological science. Molecular cytogenetics, recombinant DNA technology, gene cloning, genetic engineering, Human Genome Initiative,

*Nasrullah 1940, by =Nearco (Ity) 1935 x =Mumtaz Begum (Gb) 1932, by *Blenheim 2nd 1927 imported from Ireland into Kentucky.

*Ribot 1950, by =Tenerani (Ity) 1944 x =Romanella (Ity) 1943, by =El Greco (Ity) 1934 foaled.

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